OldCamera

Estate Agent Fitzrovia

2006-10-25T14:25:00.000-07:00

Robert Irving Burns specialise in London Commercial and Residential property services. They are a specialist in estate agent fitzrovia, amongst other London areas such as Soho and Oxford Circus.

Galba

2005-03-30T09:11:00.000-08:00

Galba was the son of the consul Gaius Sulpicius Galba and Mummia Achaica, and in addition to great wealth and ancient lineage he enjoyed the favour of the emperors Augustus and Tiberius. He began his senatorial career before

Nadelman, Elie

2005-03-30T07:00:00.000-08:00

Nadelman left home at age 19 and, after briefly attending the Warsaw Art Academy, spent six months in Munich, Germany, studying the city's art collection. In 1904 he moved to Paris,

Uccello, Paolo

2005-03-27T15:02:00.000-08:00

The standard and most readable and complete work on Uccello (and his followers) in English is John Pope-Hennessy, Paolo Uccello, 2nd ed. (1969). Eve Borsook discusses Uccello's Florentine frescoes in The Mural Painters of Tuscany, from Cimabue to Andrea del Sarto (1960). Uccello's role in the investigation of perspective is mentioned by John White in The Birth and Rebirth of Pictorial Space, 2nd ed. (1967); and this subject is treated more fully by Alessandro Parronchi in Studi su la dolce prospettiva (1964).

Alexander

2005-03-25T11:43:00.000-08:00

The third son of Karadjordje (Karageorge, or Karaðorðe), who had led the movement to win Serb autonomy from the Ottoman Turks (1804–13), Alexander lived in exile until 1842, when the Skupština (Serb parliament) elected him prince of Serbia. Assuming the throne despite Russian

Maccabees

2005-03-25T01:05:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Machabees priestly family of Jews who organized a successful rebellion against the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV and reconsecrated the defiled Temple of Jerusalem.

Rousseau, Jean-jacques

2005-03-24T05:06:00.000-08:00

Rousseau was the least academic of modern philosophers and in many ways was the most influential. His thought marked the end of the Age of Reason. He propelled political

Viganò, Salvatore

2005-03-24T00:43:00.000-08:00

Viganò was born of a family of dancers and was the nephew

Gad Al-haq Ali Gad Al-haq

2005-03-22T00:04:00.000-08:00

Egyptian religious leader who, as grand sheikh of al-Azhar, the Muslim world's highest religious body, issued rulings based on strict Islamic orthodoxy, including support for female circumcision and harsh punishment for those breaking the fast during Ramadan (b. April 5, 1917--d. March 15, 1996).

Aerospace Industry, Space launchers

2005-03-21T04:31:00.000-08:00

Various companies build small ELVs capable of taking light payloads into space. In this market segment the American supplier Orbital Sciences

Palar River

2005-03-20T21:04:00.000-08:00

The flow of the Palar is irregular, with considerable variations from year to year. Although it generally does not flood,

Lead Processing

2005-03-19T05:05:00.000-08:00

Once the ore is removed from veins (narrow channels) or lodes (roughly spherical deposits) in the Earth, usually at depths of about 60 metres, the ore is treated at concentrating mills. Here the ore is finely crushed, sometimes to particle diameters of less than 0.1 millimetre (0.004 inch), and then treated by one of several mineral concentration processes. Such processes are designed

Domain

2005-03-18T11:41:00.000-08:00

In Anglo-American law, the absolute and complete ownership of land, or the land itself which is so owned. Domain is the fullest and most superior right of property in land. Domain as a legal concept is derived from the dominium of the Roman law, which included the right of property as well as the right of possession or use of the property. The English common-law adoption

Puente-genil

2005-03-17T16:47:00.000-08:00

Town, Cordova province, in the comunidad autónoma (“autonomous community”) of Andalusia, southern Spain, located south of Cordova city, on the Cordova–Málaga railway. An agricultural centre, Puente-Genil produces olive oil, quince and other fruit jellies, linen, and insecticides. It takes its name from the bridge (puente) over the Genil River connecting the two sections

Eleaticism

2005-03-17T06:21:00.000-08:00

For a long time Xenophanes of Colophon, a religious thinker and rhapsode of the 6th–5th century BC, was considered the founder of the Eleatic school and Parmenides' mentor. This ancient claim, however, has been successfully criticized by Reinhardt. It is even possible that, on the contrary, Xenophanes was an older pupil of Parmenides. In any case, his monistic view of a cosmic

Heutsz, Johannes Benedictus Van

2005-03-16T21:40:00.000-08:00

Sent to Acheh as a subaltern in 1873, van Heutsz won fast promotions. By 1887 he was chief of staff, and in 1899 he was appointed military and civil governor of Acheh; he managed

Wage And Salary, Wages-fund theory

2005-03-15T19:26:00.000-08:00

Smith said that the demand for labour could not increase except in proportion to the increase of the funds destined for the payment of wages. Ricardo maintained that an increase in capital would result in an increase in demand for labour. Statements such as these foreshadowed the wages-fund theory, which held that a predetermined fund of wealth existed for the payment

Asteridae

2005-03-14T11:57:00.000-08:00

The Asteridae, one of the six subclasses in the class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons), consists of 11 orders, 49 families, and nearly 60,000 species. About one-third of the species of Asteridae belong to the family Asteraceae (of the order Asterales), which is the largest family of dicotyledons and one of the two largest

Cern

2005-03-14T01:45:00.000-08:00

Byname of Organisation Européene pour la Recherche Nucléaire, formerly (1952–54) Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire, English European Organization for Nuclear Research, international scientific organization established for the purpose of collaborative research into subnuclear physics (also called high-energy, or particle, physics). The organization operates expressly for research of a “pure scientific and fundamental character,” and the results of its experimental and theoretical work are made generally available. Headquarters

Pacific Mountain System, Environmental concerns

2005-03-13T16:43:00.000-08:00

The logging practice of clear-cutting left millions of acres of denuded mountainsides. Exposed

Tooke, John Horne

2005-03-13T13:50:00.000-08:00

Born John Horne, the son of a poultry dealer, he assumed (1782) the additional surname Tooke to honour his friend

Alkylation

2005-03-12T17:57:00.000-08:00

In petroleum refining, chemical process in which light, gaseous hydrocarbons are combined to produce high-octane components of gasoline. The light hydrocarbons consist of olefins such as propylene and butylene and isoparaffins such as isobutane. These compounds are fed into a reactor, where, under the influence of a sulfuric-acid or hydrofluoric-acid catalyst,

Karaganda

2005-03-11T20:25:00.000-08:00

Oblast (province), central Kazakhstan. It lies mostly in the Kazakh Uplands in a dry steppe zone, rising gradually in elevation eastward to a maximum in the Karkaraly Mountains of 5,115 feet (1,559 m). The principal rivers, the Nura and Sarysu, are in the west, in the Musbel lowland. The climate is continental (tending to extremes) and dry, with severe winters, marked by prolonged snowstorms

Nabulus

2005-03-10T21:22:00.000-08:00

Shechem, a Canaanite city, was important in ancient Palestine because of its position in an east–west pass between

Auricle

2005-03-10T13:04:00.000-08:00

Also called Pinna, in human anatomy, the visible portion of the external ear, and the point of difference between the human ear and that of other mammals. The auricle in humans is almost rudimentary and generally immobile and lies close to the side of the head. It is composed of a thin plate of yellow fibrocartilage covered by a tight-fitting skin. The external ear cartilage is molded into

Elk

2005-03-09T20:53:00.000-08:00

Elk county was created in 1843. The principal communities are St. Marys, Johnsonburg, and Ridgway, which is the county seat.

Sucking

2005-03-09T08:13:00.000-08:00

Drawing of fluids into the mouth by creating a vacuum pressure in the oral cavity. Mammalian infants rely on this method of food ingestion until they are capable of eating more solid substances. A partial vacuum is created in the oral cavity by retracting the tongue to the back of the mouth. The rear portion of the tongue seals against the roof of the mouth, allowing

Shellfish

2005-03-09T02:17:00.000-08:00

Bivalve mollusks, including oysters, mussels, scallops, and clams, rank among the most commercially

Hamasah

2005-03-07T21:12:00.000-08:00

The anthology consists of 10 books, containing,

Puerto Real

2005-03-07T16:42:00.000-08:00

Ancient (Latin) Portus Gaditanus town, Cádiz provincia, Andalusia comunidad autónoma (“autonomous community”), southern Spain. It is on the north shore of the inner arm of the Bay of Cádiz and lies 5 miles (8 km) east of Cádiz. Known to the Romans, it was probably the most ancient trading station on the Bay of Cádiz and took its modern name (meaning “royal port”) when rebuilt in 1488 by the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and

Burdekin River

2005-03-07T09:22:00.000-08:00

Coastal river of eastern Queensland, Australia. It rises on the western slopes of the Seaview Range, 45 miles (72 km) from the Pacific, and flows 440 miles (710 km) southeast and north through the Leichhardt Range to enter the ocean at Upstart Bay. Its chief tributaries are the Suttor, Star, and Bowen. The river drains an area of 50,400 square miles (130,500 square km). A 3,619-foot (1,103-metre) high-level bridge spans

Cosmology

2005-03-06T19:58:00.000-08:00

Three great ages of scientific cosmology can be distinguished. The first began in Greece in the 6th century BC when the Pythagoreans introduced the concept of a spherical Earth and, unlike the Babylonians

enoa, August

2005-03-06T13:42:00.000-08:00

Introducing the historical novel to Croatian literature, Šenoa contributed to the growing sense of national identity among the Croatian people.

Kidd, William

2005-03-05T19:41:00.000-08:00

Kidd's early career is obscure. It is believed he went to sea as a youth. After 1689 he was sailing as

Morocco, Transportation and communications

2005-03-05T17:43:00.000-08:00

Morocco's road network effectively integrates the country's diverse regions. Established during the colonial period, the network has been well maintained and gradually expanded ever since. The railway system connects the principal urban centres of the north, and new rail links, together with improved roads, are being established to El-Aaiún (Laâyoune) in Western

Korkino

2005-03-05T05:28:00.000-08:00

City, Chelyabinsk oblast (province), west-central Russia, in the southern Urals. It is a centre of coal mining in the Chelyabinsk lignite (brown coal) basin; mining began in 1934, and the settlement became a city in 1942. Excavator and truck production reflect its mining orientation; other industries are ferroconcrete and building-materials manufacture. Pop. (1991 est.) 44,800.

Japan, Ancient Japan

2005-03-04T02:56:00.000-08:00

The Nara and Heian periods are discussed in Robert Borgen, Sugawara no Michizane and the Early Heian Court (1986, reissued 1994); G. Cameron Hurst III, Insei: Abdicated Sovereigns in the Politics of Late Heian Japan, 1086–1185 (1976); Allan G. Grapard, The Protocol of the Gods: A Study of the Kasuga Cult in Japanese History (1992); Ivan Morris, The World of The Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Japan (1964, reissued 1994); Karl F. Friday, Hired Swords: The Rise of Private Warrior Power in Early Japan (1992); and William Wayne Farris, Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900 (1985), and Heavenly Warriors: The Evolution of Japan's Military, 500–1300 (1992).

Basil Of Ancyra

2005-03-03T03:15:00.000-08:00

Basil, a physician, was nominated bishop in 336 by the Semi-Arian party (see Semi-Arianism). In a Synodal Letter sent to all bishops summarizing the conclusions of a local council in

'ud

2005-03-03T00:26:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Oud, stringed musical instrument prominent in medieval and modern Islamic music. It was the parent of the European lute. The 'ud has a deep, pear-shaped body; a fretless fingerboard; and a relatively shorter neck and somewhat less acutely bent-back pegbox than the European lute. The tuning pegs are set in the sides of the pegbox. The gut strings, plucked with a plectrum, are fastened

Kieslowski, Krzysztof

2005-03-02T23:26:00.000-08:00

Kieslowski graduated from the State Theatrical and Film College in Lódz, Poland, in 1968 and began his film career making documentaries, including one he had made for Polish television

Massachusetts Bay

2005-03-02T19:30:00.000-08:00

Inlet of the North Atlantic Ocean, extending southward for about 60 miles (100 km) from Cape Ann to Cape Cod, Massachusetts, U.S. It includes Nahant, Boston, Plymouth, and Cape Cod bays and Gloucester and Salem harbours. The Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway enters the bay through the Cape Cod Canal and reaches its northernmost point at Boston. Late in 1620, the Pilgrims explored Cape

Fayette

2005-03-01T17:59:00.000-08:00

County, southwestern Pennsylvania, U.S., bounded to the north by Jacobs Creek; to the east by Laurel Hill, the Youghiogheny River, and Youghiogheny River Lake; to the south by Maryland and West Virginia; and to the west by the Monongahela River. It consists of a hilly region on the Allegheny Plateau that rises to the Allegheny Mountains in the east (including Chestnut Ridge).

Kwangsi, Education

2005-03-01T06:53:00.000-08:00

A special educational feature in Kwangsi is the program for the education of national minorities. Minority languages are used for instruction in primary and middle schools, written scripts, such as that for Chuang, are developed for spoken minority languages wherever needed, minority teachers are trained, and government subsidies are provided for minority

Art And Architecture, Egyptian, Domestic architecture

2005-03-01T05:41:00.000-08:00

The best preserved private houses are those of modest size in the workmen's village of Dayr al-Madinah. Exceptional in that they were built of stone, they

Arts, Central Asian, Painting: frescoes and temple banners

2005-02-28T23:50:00.000-08:00

Temple interiors are usually covered with frescoes and often hung with painted banners, or tanka (thang-ka). For the preparation of the latter, a taut cotton cloth is impregnated with a mixture of chalk and glue, rubbed smooth by some suitable object; for example, a flat polished stone. A religious painter trained in the tradition draws in the outline, often using printed

López De Ayala, Pedro

2005-02-28T22:54:00.000-08:00

Ayala had a long and distinguished civil

Eichler, August Wilhelm

2005-02-27T19:18:00.000-08:00

Eichler studied mathematics and natural science at the University of Marburg (Ph.D., 1861). He then went to Munich, where he became a private assistant to the naturalist Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, with whom he edited Flora

Fraenkel-conrat, Heinz L.

2005-02-27T08:30:00.000-08:00

Fraenkel-Conrat studied medicine at the University of Breslau (M.D., 1933) and then turned to biochemistry at the University of Edinburgh (Ph.D.,

Aragon

2005-02-26T21:48:00.000-08:00

Spanish Aragón comunidad autónoma (“autonomous community”) and historical region of northeastern Spain. It encompasses the provincias of Huesca, Zaragoza (Saragossa), and Teruel and was established by the statute of autonomy of August 10, 1982.

Lentulus, Publius Cornelius

2005-02-26T10:05:00.000-08:00

In 81 Lentulus was quaestor to Lucius Cornelius Sulla. When Sulla later accused him of having squandered public funds, Lentulus scornfully held out the calf of his leg, a gesture normally used by ball-playing boys inviting punishment for an error. He was praetor in 74 and consul

Acto Adicional Of 1834

2005-02-25T14:10:00.000-08:00

The abdication of the unpopular Brazilian emperor Pedro I in 1831 precipitated the surfacing of violently opposed factions and civil

Aranda

2005-02-24T19:53:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Arunta, Aboriginal tribe that originally occupied a region of 25,000 square miles (65,000 square km) in central Australia, along the upper Finke River and its tributaries. The Aranda were divided into five subtribes, which were marked by differences in dialect. In common with other Aborigines, the Aranda were greatly reduced in number during the first 70 years of contact with whites, but

Ryokan

2005-02-24T18:05:00.000-08:00

The eldest son of a village headman, he became a Buddhist priest at about the age of 17 under the religious name of Taigu Ryokan. When he was 21 he met an itinerant monk, Kokusen, and followed him to his temple, Entsu-ji, at Tamashima,

Afonso Iii

2005-02-24T07:31:00.000-08:00

The younger son of Afonso II and Urraeca, daughter of Alfonso VIII of Castile, Afonso emigrated and became, by marriage, count of Boulogne. His elder brother, Sancho II, was deposed by order of the pope, who granted Afonso

Farlovian Stage

2005-02-23T22:28:00.000-08:00

Division of the Old Red Sandstone of the Devonian Period of western Europe (the Devonian Period began about 395,000,000 years ago and lasted about 50,000,000 years); the Farlovian Stage follows the Breconian and was named for exposures studied near the town of Farlow, in the English Midlands. Farlovian rocks consist of gray and yellow sandstones and shales that contain the primitive Upper

Alençon

2005-02-23T22:11:00.000-08:00

Town, Orne département, Basse-Normandie région, northwestern France. Alençon lies at the juncture of the Sarthe and Briante rivers, in the centre of a plain ringed by wooded hills. It is known for its tulle and lace (especially point d'Alençon), introduced from Venice in the mid-17th century. Incorporated in the duchy of Normandy in 911, it was capital of the county and duchy of

Leakey, Mary Douglas

2005-02-22T13:04:00.000-08:00

As a girl she exhibited a natural talent for drawing and was interested in archaeology. After undergoing sporadic

Cam Ranh

2005-02-22T11:48:00.000-08:00

City, south-central Vietnam. It is situated on a peninsula enclosing Cam Ranh Bay, an inlet of the South China Sea. Cam Lam (Ba Ngoi), on the western shore of the bay, was the area's major port and naval base during French colonial days. The United States military intervention in South Vietnam in 1965 created new installations and airfields, many of them at Cam Ranh. Pop. (1989) 114,041.

Fabian Society

2005-02-21T07:40:00.000-08:00

The name of the society is derived from the Roman general Fabius Cunctator, whose patient and elusive tactics in avoiding pitched battles secured his ultimate

Biblical Literature, Books of ordinances

2005-02-20T20:07:00.000-08:00

Other books of ordinances of the sect have been preserved, containing prescriptions and other material. Three such compositions are written on one scroll: the Manual of Discipline, the Rule of the Congregation, and the manual of Benedictions. The Manual of Discipline is the rule (or statement of regulations) of the Essene community; the most important part of this

San Carlos

2005-02-20T17:00:00.000-08:00

City, capital of Cojedes estado (“state”), northwestern Venezuela. The city lies along the Tirgua River, at the base of the central highlands and near the Llanos (plains) region. Founded in 1678 by Capuchin missionaries, San Carlos served as capital of Falcón state prior to the separation of Cojedes and Portuguesa states. It is the commercial and marketing centre of an agricultural

Kerguelen Cabbage

2005-02-19T18:04:00.000-08:00

(species Pringlea antiscorbutica), plant resembling the common cabbage and belonging to the same family (Brassicaceae). It was named for Kerguelen Island. The leaves of the plant contain a pale-yellow, highly pungent essential oil rich in ascorbic acid (vitamin C), for which reason it was a useful dietary supplement against scurvy. It was discovered by the British explorer

Sabha

2005-02-19T10:01:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Sebha, town, southwestern Libya, in a Saharan oasis. It was an active caravan centre from the 11th century. The modern town of stark white buildings and wide streets is surrounded by older settlements of mud-walled dwellings and covered alleyways. The former Italian Fort Elena, on a nearby hill, is now used for offices, shops, and a hospital. The town continues as a trade and transport

Wedgwood, Dame (cicely) Veronica ("c.v.")

2005-02-19T07:09:00.000-08:00

, British historian (b. July 20, 1910, Stocksfield, Northumberland, Eng.--d. March 9, 1997, London. Eng.), was one of Great Britain's most distinguished and celebrated historians. Her biographies and historical works, especially those on the English Civil Wars, provided a clear, entertaining middle ground between popular and scholarly works; she used a narrative approach, preferring to explain

Gabrovo

2005-02-18T02:47:00.000-08:00

Town, north-central Bulgaria. It is situated on both banks of the Yantra River, at the foot of the Shipka Pass in the Balkan Mountains. A major industrial centre, Gabrovo has a high in-migration population from the surrounding area. Called the “Bulgarian Manchester,” the town has a large textile industry—clothes, leather goods, and accessories. Other manufactures are machine

Western Australia

2005-02-17T23:14:00.000-08:00

Hydatidiform Mole

2005-02-17T21:42:00.000-08:00

In human pregnancy, abnormal growth of the chorion, the outermost vascular membrane that in a normal pregnancy would enclose the embryo and ultimately give rise to the placenta. In the situation in which the hydatidiform mole develops, the embryo is usually either absent or dead. The mole, a collection of sacs (cysts) containing a jellylike substance, resembles clusters

Lattes, C.m.g.

2005-02-17T13:25:00.000-08:00

Lattes studied at the University of São Paulo with Giuseppe Occhialini in the 1940s and accompanied him in 1946 to the

Saiga

2005-02-16T09:50:00.000-08:00

The most

Elisha Ben Abuyah

2005-02-15T04:12:00.000-08:00

Byname Aher Jewish scholar who renounced his faith and who came to be regarded in later ages as a prototype of the heretic whose intellectual pride leads him to infidelity to Jewish laws and morals. In the Talmud, Elisha is not mentioned by name but is usually referred to as Aher (“the Other,” or “Another”). His renunciation of Judaism was considered doubly heinous because he was a tanna

Ch'eng Hao And Ch'eng I

2005-02-14T20:03:00.000-08:00

Ch'eng I also spelled (Wade–Giles romanization) Ch'eng Yi, Pinyin Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi brothers who developed Neo-Confucianism into an organized school of philosophy. Although their philosophies are usually considered together, their ideas developed in divergent directions. Ch'eng Hao influenced the Idealist school of Neo-Confucianism, while Ch'eng I influenced the development of the Rationalist school. Ch'eng

X Club

2005-02-14T06:17:00.000-08:00

Ruth Barton, “ ‘Huxley, Lubbock, and Half a Dozen Others': Professionals and Gentlemen in the Formation of the X Club, 1851–1864,” Isis, 89(3):410–444 (September 1998), discusses the interests and purposes that brought the group together. Two articles survey the importance of the club: Roy MacLeod, “The X-Club: A Social Network of Science in Late-Victorian England,” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 24(2):305–322 (April 1970), is the fuller account; J. Vernon Jensen, “The X Club: Fraternity of Victorian Scientists,” The British Journal for the History of Science, vol. 5, part 1, no. 17, pp. 63–72 (June 1970), is also useful. Ruth Barton, “ ‘An Influential Set of Chaps': The X-Club and Royal Society Politics 1864–85,” The British Journal for the History of Science, vol. 23, part 1, no. 76, pp. 53–81 (March 1990), details how club members achieved and used power within the Royal Society.

Maccaig, Norman

2005-02-13T03:48:00.000-08:00

After graduation from the University of Edinburgh, MacCaig held various teaching positions, mostly in Edinburgh. His early published works, which he later disavowed, were Far Cry (1943) and The Inward Eye (1946). In Riding Lights (1955), his characteristic poetic voice—recalling the polished

Stein, Charlotte Von

2005-02-13T02:00:00.000-08:00

German writer and an intimate friend of and important influence on Goethe; she was the inspiration for the female figures Iphigenie in Iphigenie auf Tauris and Natalie in Wilhelm Meister. She remained for Goethe an unattainable feminine ideal and should not be confused with the warm and simple Lotte, heroine

Wage And Salary

2005-02-12T16:34:00.000-08:00

Analyses of economic distribution appear in David Ricardo, Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817, reissued 1981), the classical subsistence theory of wages; Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1 (1886; originally published in German, 1867), also available in many later editions, treating the process of distribution as pure conflict; John Bates Clark, Distribution of Wealth (1899, reissued 1965), the classic work on marginal productivity theory whereby distribution is viewed as a harmonious process in which the factors of production receive as income what they contribute to the product; Frank H. Knight, Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit (1921, reprinted 1985), an analysis of profits viewed as a result of imperfect foresight and as a remuneration for risk-bearing; Joseph Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development (1934, reprinted 1987; originally published in German, 1912), an analysis of economic development as a result of the innovations of entrepreneurs motivated by profit; Paul H. Douglas, The Theory of Wages (1934, reissued 1964), marginalist theory based on statistical research which sets forth the famous Cobb–Douglas function; K.J. Arrow et al., “Capital–Labor Substitution and Economic Efficiency,” The Review of Economics and Statistics, 43:225–250 (1961), an econometric study explaining the falling share of capital in the national income by the elasticity of substitution; J.R. Hicks, The Theory of Wages, 2nd ed. (1963, reissued 1973), a sophisticated treatment of marginal productivity theory; and Nicholas Kaldor, “Alternative Theories of Distribution,” in his Essays on Value and Distribution, 2nd ed. (1980), a discussion of various theories from Ricardo to Keynes. Dan Usher, The Economic Prerequisite to Democracy (1981), suggests that democracy requires broad agreement on how an economic system will distribute wealth. Other works in this area are Alan S. Blinder, Toward an Economic Theory of Income Distribution (1974); and Ronald G. Ehrenberg and Robert S. Smith, Modern Labor Economics: Theory and Public Policy, 5th ed. (1994).

Epiphanius Of Constantia, Saint

2005-02-11T23:23:00.000-08:00

Bishop noted in the history of the early Christian church for his struggle against beliefs he considered heretical. His chief target was the teachings of Origen, a major theologian in the Eastern church whom he considered more a Greek philosopher than a Christian. Epiphanius' own principles were discredited

Charadriiform, Locomotion and feeding behaviour

2005-02-11T21:44:00.000-08:00

Most shorebirds inhabit open areas and are strong fliers, some performing extensive migrations that cover long distances over water. A ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres) banded in the Pribilof Islands was recaptured in the Hawaiian Leeward Islands, 3,770 kilometres (2,325 miles) away, four days later. Gulls, terns, skimmers, skuas, and jaegers spend much of their time on the

Smorgasbord

2005-02-11T13:18:00.000-08:00

Swedish Smörgåsbord, in Swedish cuisine, buffet offering a variety of fish, cheeses, and hot and cold dishes. In the country districts of Sweden, it was customary for guests to contribute to the fare at large gatherings. The foods were set out on long tables from which the diners helped themselves. By the 18th century, festive meals were preceded by appetizers from a bannvinsbord, offering aquavit,

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb

2005-02-11T00:38:00.000-08:00

German philosopher and patriot, one of the great transcendental idealists.

Powell, Maud

2005-02-10T06:35:00.000-08:00

Powell early displayed musical talent and took up the violin. Encouraged especially by her mother, an amateur musician and composer, she studied under teachers in Aurora, Illinois, and in Chicago. At age nine she made a six-week

Scandinavian Literature, Skaldic verse

2005-02-09T16:20:00.000-08:00

Norwegians and Icelanders of the 9th to the 13th century also composed skaldic poetry (from the Icelandic word skáld, “poet”). It was not composed in the free variable metres of the Poetic Edda but was strictly syllabic: every syllable had to be counted and every line had to end in a given form. Like Eddaic lines, the skaldic lines were joined in pairs by alliteration, often using

Fischer, Hans

2005-02-08T23:18:00.000-08:00

After receiving his Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Marburg (1904) and his M.D. from the University of Munich (1908), Fischer worked as a physician

Daudet, Alphonse

2005-02-08T23:10:00.000-08:00

French short-story writer and novelist, now remembered chiefly as the author of sentimental tales of provincial life in the south of France.

Scabious

2005-02-07T21:19:00.000-08:00

Also called Scabiosa (genus Scabiosa), any of about 100 species of annual and perennial herbs of the teasel family, Dipsacaceae, order Dipsacales. They are native to temperate Eurasia, the Mediterranean region, and the mountains of eastern Africa. Some are important garden plants. All species have basal leaf rosettes and leafy stems. The flower heads have many crowded, small,

Hunt, Helen

2005-02-07T17:27:00.000-08:00

It seemed that everyone was mad about Helen Hunt in 1998. The year began with the American actress winning a Golden Globe for her performance as a lonely waitress in the surprise hit film As Good as It Gets (1997). A Screen Actors Guild Award soon followed, and in March she received an Academy Award, which completed her sweep of the major American film honours for best actress. Her

Epistemology, Rationalism versus empiricism

2005-02-06T19:56:00.000-08:00

The second issue that emerges from considerations of the origins of knowledge focuses on the distinction between rationalism and empiricism. Though closely related to the issue of innateness versus learning, the question in this case concerns the nature of the source from which knowledge arises. The history of discussion of the issue indicates that two main

Judaism, The making of the Kabbala (c. 11501250)

2005-02-06T09:26:00.000-08:00

It was in these circumstances that, starting around 1150, manifestations of markedly theosophic ideologies appeared in the south of present-day France (in the regions of Provence–Languedoc–Roussillon). Two types can be distinguished at the outset, which are very different as to their manner of appearance, their form, and their content.

Extracellular Fluid

2005-02-05T06:54:00.000-08:00

In biology, body fluid that is not contained in cells. It is found in blood, in lymph, in body cavities lined with serous (moisture-exuding) membrane, in the cavities and channels of the brain and spinal cord, and in muscular and other body tissues. It differs from intracellular fluid (fluid within the cells) in that it generally has a high concentration of sodium and low concentration

Aaronic Priesthood

2005-02-05T05:23:00.000-08:00

In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the lesser of the two categories of priests, concerned principally with church finances and administration. See Mormon.

Annelid

2005-02-05T03:38:00.000-08:00

General overviews of annelids can be found in R. Phillips Dales, Annelids, 2nd ed. (1967), a semipopular account; D.T. Anderson, Embryology and Phylogeny in Annelids and Arthropods (1973); P.J. Mill (ed.), Physiology of Annelids (1978), a review; Robert D. Barnes, Invertebrate Zoology, 4th ed. (1980), ch. 10, “The Annelids,” pp. 263–341; R.O. Brinkhurst, “Evolution in the Annelida,” Canadian Journal of Zoology, 60(5):1043–59 (1982), a summary of current scholarship; Donald J. Klemm (ed.), A Guide to the Freshwater Annelida (Polychaeta, Naidid and Tubificid Oligochaeta, and Hirudinea) of North America (1985), on ecology and taxonomy; and Vicki Pearse et al., Living Invertebrates (1987), ch. 16, “Annelid Body Plan,” and ch. 17, “A Diversity of Annelids,” pp. 387–437. For information on polychaetes, see Kristian Fauchald, The Polychaete Worms: Definitions and Keys to the Orders, Families, and Genera (1977); Kristian Fauchald and P.A. Jumars, “The Diet of Worms: A Study of Polychaete Feeding Guilds,” Oceanography and Marine Biology, 17:193–284 (1979); and Albrecht Fischer and Hans-Dieter Pfannenstiel (eds.), Polychaete Reproduction: Progress in Comparative Reproductive Biology (1984), a collection of symposium papers. For oligochaetes, see R.O. Brinkhurst and B.G.M. Jamieson, Aquatic Oligochaeta of the World (1971); C.A. Edwards and J.R. Lofty, Biology of Earthworms, 2nd ed. (1977); and O. Giere and O. Pfannkuche, “Biology and Ecology of Marine Oligochaeta: A Review,” Oceanography and Marine Biology, 20:173–308 (1982). See also the proceedings of three international symposia on aquatic oligochaete biology: R.O. Brinkhurst and David G. Cook (eds.), Aquatic Oligochaete Biology (1980); G. Bonomi and C. Erséus (eds.), Aquatic Oligochaeta (1984); and R.O. Brinkhurst and R.J. Diaz (eds.), Aquatic Oligochaeta (1987). For leeches, see Kenneth J. Muller, John G. Nicholls, and Gunther S. Stent (ed.), Neurobiology of the Leech (1981); and Roy T. Sawyer, Leech Biology and Behaviour, 3 vol. (1986), an extensive overview.

Thomas, Jess

2005-02-03T16:47:00.000-08:00

U.S. operatic tenor (b. Aug. 4, 1927, Hot Springs, S.D.--d. Oct. 11, 1993, San Francisco, Calif.), sang a number of lyric roles but became best known as a Wagnerian heldentenor. He participated in local musical activities as a child, studied psychology at the University of Nebraska (B.A., 1949) and at Stanford University (M.A., 1954), and worked as a high school counselor. A professor at Stanford, Otto Schulman, persuaded

Proctitis

2005-02-03T09:11:00.000-08:00

Acute inflammatory infection of the anus and rectum. The most common cause of proctitis is the direct inoculation of pathogenic microorganisms into the rectum during anal intercourse, but it may be caused by sexually transmitted diseases, Crohn disease, or ulcerative colitis. The usual symptoms include anorectal pain, a purulent or bloody discharge, constipation,

Ouzel

2005-02-03T08:03:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Ousel, also called Ring-ouzel (species Turdus torquatus), a thrush of the family Turdidae (order Passeriformes), characterized by a white crescent on the breast. A blackish bird, 24 cm (9.5 inches) long, it breeds locally in uplands from Great Britain and Norway to the Middle East. The name ouzel was formerly applied to a closely related European blackbird (T. merula; see blackbird). For a related bird in Mexico,

Duchesne, André

2005-02-02T22:58:00.000-08:00

Duchesne was educated at Loudun and Paris and devoted his early years to studies in history and geography. His first work, Egregiarum seu Selectarum Lectionum et Antiquitatum

Aesthetics

2005-02-02T21:29:00.000-08:00

As the above discussion illustrates, it is impossible to advance far into the theory of aesthetic experience without encountering the specific problems posed by the experience of art. Whether or not we think of art as the central or defining example of the aesthetic object, there is no doubt that it provides the most distinctive illustration both of the elusive

Kobe

2005-02-01T23:03:00.000-08:00

Kobe is situated at the eastern end of the Inland Sea on Osaka Bay, about 20 miles (32 km) west of Osaka. The city is confined to a narrow shelf of land

Fruitworm Beetle

2005-01-31T10:18:00.000-08:00

Any of a few genera of insects in the family Byfuridae (order Coleoptera) whose larvae feed on fruit. A common example of this family of small, hairy, oval beetles is the raspberry fruitworm (Byturus rubi). The small, pale larva, which is covered with short fine hairs, attacks the raspberry fruit. The adult, which ranges in colour from reddish yellow to black, is about 4 mm (0.16 inch)

Sea Kale

2005-01-31T03:32:00.000-08:00

(Crambe maritima), cabbagelike perennial plant of the mustard family (Brassicaceae), native to seashores and cliffs of Eurasia. Young or blanched leaves are cooked and eaten. The waxy, blue-green, coarsely toothed leaves are 30–90 cm (1–3 feet) long. Honey-fragrant, clustered sprays of white, four-petaled flowers rise from the basal leaves.

Arts, Central Asian, Shamanic ritual

2005-01-31T01:32:00.000-08:00

Teachings that spirits are responsible for unexplainable phenomena, such as disease and death, and that these spirits can be controlled by an individual with special powers, such as a shaman, evolved in many primitive societies throughout the world, including those of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia. The roles of the shaman include oracle, healer, sacrificer,

Robbins (of Clare Market), Lionel Charles Robbins, Baron

2005-01-30T13:06:00.000-08:00

Robbins was educated at the University of London and the London School of Economics (LSE). After periods of teaching at New College, Oxford, and LSE, he was appointed professor of economics at the latter university in 1929, a position he held until 1961. Robbins was influenced